Argument Structure in English Grammar

Argument Structure in English Grammar The word argument in  linguistics  does not have the same meaning as that word in common usage. When used in relation to grammar and writing, an argument is any expression or syntactic element in a sentence that serves to complete the meaning of the verb. In other words, it expands on whats being expressed by the verb and is not a term that implies controversy, as common usage does. Read about the more traditional sense of argument as a rhetorical term  here. In English, a verb typically requires from one to three arguments. The number of arguments required by a verb is the valency of that verb. In addition to the predicate and its arguments, a sentence may contain optional elements called adjuncts. According to Kenneth L. Hale and Samuel Jay Keyser in 2002s Prolegomenon to a Theory of Argument Structure,  argument structure is determined by properties of lexical items, in particular, by the syntactic configurations in which they must appear.   Examples and Observations on Argument Structure Verbs are the glue that holds clauses together. As elements that encode events, verbs are associated with a core set of ​semantic participants that take part in the event. Some of a verbs semantic participants, although not necessarily all, are mapped to roles that are syntactically relevant in the clause, such as subject or direct object; these are the arguments of the verb. For example, in John kicked the ball, John and the ball are semantic participants of the verb kick, and they are also its core syntactic arguments - the subject and the direct object, respectively. Another semantic participant, foot, is also understood, but it is not an argument; rather, it is incorporated directly into the meaning of the verb. The array of participants associated with verbs and other predicates, and how these participants are mapped to syntax, are the focus of the study of argument structure. -   Melissa Bowerman and Penelope Brown, Crosslinguistic Perspectives on Argument Structure: Implications for Learnability (2008) Arguments in Construction GrammarEach part of a complex construction has a relation to some other part of the construction in construction grammar. The relations between parts of a construction are all cast in terms of predicate-argument relations. For example, in Heather sings, Heather is the argument and sings is the predicate. The predicate-argument relation is symbolic, that is, both syntactic and semantic. Semantically a predicate is relational, that is, inherently relates to one or more additional concepts. In Heather sings, singing inherently involves a singer. The semantic arguments of a predicate are the concepts to which the predicate relates, in this case, Heather. Syntactically, a predicate requires a certain number of arguments in specific grammatical functions to it: sing requires an argument in the subject grammatical function. And syntactically, arguments are related to the predicate by a grammatical function: in this case, Heather is the subject of sings. -   Willi am Croft and D. Alan Cruse, Cognitive Linguistics  (2004) ExceptionsNote the unusual behavior of the verb rain, which neither requires nor permits any arguments at all, except for the dummy subject it,  as in Its raining. This verb arguably has a valency of zero. -   R.K. Trask, Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts  Ã‚  (2007)Conflicts Between Constructional Meaning and Lexical MeaningIn cognitive linguistics, it is generally assumed that grammatical constructions are carriers of meaning independent of the lexical items they contain. The lexical items used in a construction, especially the meanings of the verb and its argument structure, have to be fitted into the construction frame, but there are cases where a conflict between constructional meaning and lexical meaning arises. Two interpretive strategies emerge in such cases: Either the utterance is rejected as uninterpretable (semantically anomalous) or the semantic and/or syntactic conflict is resolved by a meaning shift or coercion. In general, the construction imposes its m eaning on the verb meaning. For example, the ditransitive construction in English exemplified in Mary gave Bill the ball is in semantic and syntactic conflict with the syntax and meaning of the ditransitive construction. The resolution of this conflict consists in a semantic shift: the basically transitive verb kick is construed ditransitively and coerced into the interpretation cause to receive by means of hitting with the foot. This meaning shift is possible because there are an independently motivated conceptual metonymy  means of action for action that makes the intended interpretation available to the hearer even if he or she has never before encountered the use of kick in the ditransitive construction.  Klaus-Uwe Panther and Linda L. Thornburg, The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (2007)

Hazardous Household Chemicals inside the Cell Essay Example

Hazardous Household Chemicals inside the Cell Essay Example Hazardous Household Chemicals inside the Cell Paper Hazardous Household Chemicals inside the Cell Paper Rapid industrialization and consumerism have facilitated the humans to possess a variety of household products and consumer appliances that have, apparently, made life comfortable. However, these household products also have hazardous chemicals that enter the human cells through adsorption and absorption. Food and even drinking water are contaminated with toxic chemicals since they come into contact with plastics and metals that are sources to deadly arsenic, mercury, lead, and cadmium, which are well-known to cause cancer, and congenital as well as cognitive defects (McCormick, 2009). Similarly, mineral oil, petrolatum, and propylene glycol, which are used in cosmetics, can cause the skin to become unhealthy due to retention of toxic under the skin by these dangerous chemicals (Maehr, n.d.). What is the benefit of using such cosmetics that beautify the skin temporarily but cause permanent damage to the skin? : Floor cleaners contain pine oil, petroleum distillates, and naphtha, which have harmful effects on the human cells and the body because their inhalation can cause irritation of eyes and mucous membrane, and in the worse case, they could lead to cardiac arrest, coma, and fatal pulmonary edema (Home Air Purifier Expert, n.d.). It is clear that the hazardous chemicals used in the household products by the humans are not giving comfort, but they are causing allergies and life threatening diseases. The list of hazardous chemicals found in the human cells also include fire retarding chemicals found in fabric and furniture, and phthalates used in plastic packaging of food products (National Geographic, 2006). Is it safe to consume food in toxic plastic wraps? Similarly, it was reported that lead used in paints and toys was a major cause of retarded mental growth and behavioral problems in children (National Geographic, 2006). Hence, it is evident that the household products contain toxic chemicals that cause fatal diseases in children, adults as well as elderly, and their consumption should be minimized. References Home Air Purifier Expert. (n.d.). Retrieved May 22, 2010, from home-air-purifier-expert.com/household-chemical.html#Sodium%20Carbonate Maehr, J.T. (n.d.). Undesirable ingredients in your personal care products. Retrieved May 22, 2010, from http://purehealthsystems.com/chemicals.html McCormick, L.W. (2009). Report Finds Toxins Common in Products for Children, Pets.   Consumer Affairs. Retrieved May 22, 2010, from consumeraffairs.com/news04/2009/09/toxins.html National Geographic. (2006). Chemical within us. Retrieved May 22, 2010, from healthedcorp.com/documents/National_Geographic_Toxic_People_2006.pdf

Coca-Cola SCM Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Coca-Cola SCM - Case Study Example It is a functional system that comprises the running of the source materials’ movement into the business, various scenarios of how the products and services are produced, and the management of how the services and the products are delivered to the customer. Hence, functions like obtaining source materials, and the ownership of distribution mechanisms are passed on to other businesses that are specialised with these functions. The regulation of the day to day logistics by the parent business is decreased, while, the number of business partners increases. Supply chain management enhances the speed of the movement of products and goods and minimises the cost. It enables the management of the inventory, transport, supply, customer service, and the distribution (Lambert, 2008). The Coca-Cola Company produces a variety of soft-drinks. Its headquarters is in Atlanta. The company produces the syrups that are used to produce the various soft drinks and sells them to bottlers around the world. It has an estimated 3,500 types of soft drinks under its name. Soft drinks are beverages that contain no alcohol, but are carbonated, have sweeteners and are of different flavours (The Coca-Cola Company, 2011). The Carbon (IV) oxide gives soft drinks their unique taste while the sweeteners provide the calories. Over the years, Coca-Cola has continually produced different soft drinks under various brands totalling to over 500 in nearly every country around the world. The old supply chain management of Coca-Cola Company involved several stages. It included the internal supply chain, the distribution and logistics network, the supply network, and finally to the customers. The internal supply chain was composed of production of the various beverages that it produces, the sourcing of the ingredients, the distribution to its business partners, marketing and sales, and the accounting of all the finances. The marketing and sale of its products have been characterised